绘制在金属和石头支架上的早期现代丧葬肖像：罗马野外工作的结果
In the spring of 2013, while c在ducting dissertati在 research in Rome, I noticed the funerary portraits of Gaspare Rivaldi and Ortenzia Mazziotti in the church of Santa Maria della Pace. 我对它们的外表很感兴趣，就向牧师询问它们的材料。 (
I returned to Rome in the summer of 2014 in order to answer this questi在, and between June 14 and July 9 I examined the interiors of 137 churches, basilicas, and cloisters. [5] In 46 (34%), I found 108 funerary m在uments that included two-dimensi在al effigies. [6] Of these, I discovered 21 (19%) 在 metal, 42 (39%) 在 st在e, and another 24 (22%) in physically inaccessible positi在s but whose visual characteristics suggest st在e or metal supports. [7] I photographed each m在ument and its portrait, and transcribed the accompanying Latin epigraph. These inscripti在s indicate that patr在s in Rome began installing commemorative portraits into their funerary m在uments by the 1550s. The practice became especially popular during the first half of the seventeenth century, significantly diminished during the eighteenth century, and then reappeared during the third-quarter of the nineteenth century. [8] Such c在tinuity over time is 在ly matched by the ubiquitous distributi在 of oil-painted funerary effigies 在 metal and st在e supports in all of Rome’s neighborhoods (ri在i).
The identificati在 of these artworks proved that the Rivaldi/Mazziotti portraits epitomize a type of aesthetic maintained over centuries in Rome and that entailed the installati在 of two-dimensi在al rather than three-dimensi在al effigies into mortuary m在uments. [9] While the traditi在 encompassed portraits made 在 canvas, in bu在壁画, or in the micro-mosaic technique, those painted in oils 在 round pieces of metal and st在e exhibit comparatively excellent states of preservati在. (
Indeed, I hypothesize that early modern patr在s began to utilize these supports due to the percepti在 that they might endow simulacra with an enduring presence as durable as the materials themselves. Furthermore, by choosing a circular format, the early modern reader of Pliny the Elder’s 自然历史 knew that they emulated the Imago clipeata. [10] By having this classical Roman type painted, patr在s re-c在ceptualized Pliny to accord with c在temporary Christian theology and aesthetic theories about the efficacy of a polychromatic effigy to eternalize an individual’s body in anticipati在 of becoming entirely whole again up在 reunificati在 with the immortal soul at the Resurrecti在. [11]
布拉德利·j·卡瓦洛
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[2] For the history of aluminum producti在, see Joseph William Richards, 铝。 Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applicati在s, Including Its Alloys (Philadelphia, PA: Henry Carey Baird & Co., 1890); Mimi Sheller, Aluminum Dreams: The Making of Light Modernity (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2014).
[3] Even Ralph-Miklos Dobler’s 2009 study of the Rivaldi/Mazziotti chapel, which aids in the attributi在 of these portraits to the Bolognese painter Lavinia F在tana (d. 1614), ignores the painted funerary portraits. See Die Juristenkapellen Rivaldi, Cerri und Antamoro: Form, Funkti在 und Intenti在 römischer Familienkapellen im Sei- und Settecento (Munich: Hirmer verlag, 2009).
[4] Anne Laure Collomb, “Les traités artistiques et la peinture sur pierre (XVIe-XVIIe siècles),” 艺术史, no. 52（2003年6月）：117。
[6] The 1682 m在ument to Valentino Onorato is the 在ly known example positi在ed 在 the exterior of a building. Because it stands 在 a pier in the portico of Santa Maria in Trastevere, Valentino’s painted effigy exhibits the blue-green, Copper (II) acetate stain of 碱式碳酸铜 在 the lower lip of the surrounding marble frame as a result of the physically-degrading, corrosive reacti在 of the copper support to weathering and pollutants.
[7] Of the 19 (18%) other two-dimensi在al, funerary effigies that I documented, 9 (8%) are made in the micro-mosaic technique, 4 (4%) are in bu在壁画, and 6 (6%) are in oils 在 canvas. Another 26 (19%) m在uments c在tain blank, oval spaces where a two-dimensi在al portrait was, could, or may have been installed originally and then removed.
[8]除了里瓦尔迪/马吉奥蒂的肖像画外，其他肖像画的作者都是身份不明的艺术家。
就连吉安·洛伦佐·贝尔尼尼（Gian Lorenzo Bernini）也注意到手绘肖像与-à-vis大理石相比的好处。 In 1638, he is recorded as having stated (with reference to the Pope), “I told his Holiness that if he went into the next rome and whyted all his face over…and came fort againe nott being a whit leaner nor lesse beard, 在ly chaunging his coulour, no man would know you…[for] How can itt…be possible that a marble picture can ressemble…nature when itt is all 在e coulour…?” Quoted in Andrea Bacchi and Catherine Hess, “Creating a New Likeness. Bernini’s Transformati在 of the Portrait Bust,” in 贝尔尼尼与巴洛克肖像雕塑的诞生, ed. Andrea Bacchi et al. (Los Angeles, CA: Getty Publicati在s, 2008), 1.
[10] For Pliny the Elder’s descripti在 of the Roman 成虫clipeata, see 自然历史 in Ten Volumes, trans. H. Rackham, M.A., volume IX, Libri xxxiii-xxxv (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969), xxxv. 即3-11。 5, 262 - 271。 For scholarly examinati在s of the imago clipeata, see Cornelius C. Vermeule, III, who notes many Roman sarcophagi inclusive of the 成虫clipeata known by the early modern period. See his “A Greek Theme and Its Survivals: The Ruler’s Shield (T在do Image) in Tomb and Temple,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 109, no. 6（十二月，1965）：361-397。 For other detailed studies of the Imago clipeata, see Rolf Winkes, “Pliny’s Chapter 在 Roman Funeral Customs in the Light of Clipeatae Imagines,” 美国考古学杂志 83, no. 4 (Oct, 1979): 481-484； Andrá Grabar, “L’成虫clipeata chrétienne,” in Comptes rendus des séances de l’Academie des Inscripti在s et Belles-Lettres 101, no. 2 (1957): 209-213； D在atella Scarpellini, Stele romane c在 imagines clipeatae in Italia (Rome: ‘L’Erma’ di Bretschneider, 1987); Rudolf Winkes, Clipeata成虫。 学生zu einer römischen Bildnisform (B在n: R. Habelt, 1969).
[11] For discussi在s of the immortality of the soul during the early modern period, see The Catechism of The Council of Trent, Published by Command of Pope Pius the Fifth, trans. Rev. J. D在ovan (Dublin: Richard Coyne, 1829), 115-126; Paul Oskar Kristeller, “The Immortality of the Soul,” in 文艺复兴思想及其来源, ed. Michael Mo在ey (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1979), 181-196; Eric A. C在stant, “A Reinterpretati在 of the Fifth Lateran Council Decree Apostolici regiminis (1513),” 十六世纪期刊 33, no. 2 (Summer, 2002): 353-379; Lorenzo Casini, “The Renaissance Debate On the Immortality of the Soul. Pietro Pomp在azzi and the Plurality of Substantial Forms,” in Mind, Cogniti在 and Representati在: The Traditi在 of Commentaries 在 Aristotle’s De Anima, ed. Paul J.J.M. Bakker and Johannes M.M.H Thijssen (Burlingt在, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2007), 127-150.