Determinants of Middle and High School Teachers’ Well-Being: A Systematic Review

Introduction

Teachers’ well-being (TWB) is a significant concern, which has attracted substantial interest, particularly within educational institutions. Teacher well-being is not only an individual responsibility but also a shared responsibility of the organization, society, and the world.¹ The high workload, task demands, emotional, and many challenges for teachers can provide high pressure, so that if teachers do not have high well-being, they will have a desire to leave the profession.² Well-being will affect every activity that teachers do at school, from teaching to their interactions with other individuals. Based on these studies, research on TWB is important to develop because it can bring progress for teachers if they have a high TWB, and vice versa, it will cause teachers to leave the profession if they have a low TWB. Several studies have reported the relevance of TWB to teaching effectiveness, students’ outcomes, and educational governance.^3,4 TWB has also been shown to be a major contributor to school stability and enhancement of staff commitment.⁵ In addition, it has a positive correlation with satisfaction, positive emotions, resilience, flourishing, motivation, commitment,^6–8 school climate, and job crafting.⁹ A recent review showed that TWB was associated with feelings of competence, teaching efficacy, commitment/identification, and a sense of belonging to organization. A significant association was also found with professional learning, positive collegial relation, collegial support, collaboration, positive relation with students, support for quality teaching, supportive work environment, support by principals, and leadership school collective efficacy/school ethos.¹⁰ Meanwhile, low TWB is often considered a barrier to educational reform and school improvement, leading to increased rates of teachers’ absenteeism.¹¹ TWB has been reported to have a negative correlation with teachers’ stress and burnout¹² frustration, and anxiety.^13–15 This shows that it must be a vital consideration in educational studies and policy formulation. However, based on previous findings, no research has been found discussing the determinants that influence TWB based on a systematic literature review methodology from the past few years. Current literature on TWB predominantly focuses on various pedagogical approaches centered on problem-solving, with fewer interventions using solution-focused and positively framed approaches that leverage teachers’ intrinsic strengths or resources associated with well-being. Despite the presence of promising findings in this area,^16–18 the investigation of teachers’ workplace well-being and happiness remains relatively limited compared to other topics. In addition, the well-being of middle and high school teachers is a crucial issue that has received significant attention in literature. Previous studies showed that many educators in these settings often face various challenges, including student aggression and victimization, which have negative impacts on their emotional and physical health, as well as job performance.¹⁹ Therefore, this study will discuss the determinants of teachers’ well-being in middle and high school teachers.

According to several reports, the adolescent phase is a challenging period for students, and teachers in middle and high school must contend with the behaviors associated with this developmental phase. This is a sensitive period for developing social and cultural identity and highlights the difficulty adolescents experience when balancing individual identity with social expectations.²⁰ School environment impacts adolescent motivation, identity formation, and mental health, focusing on the need for a supportive environment during this stage.²¹ Peer dynamics can influence mental health in adolescence, addressing the pressures adolescents face in adapting to group dynamics and the potential for negative social influence.²² Based on those studies, adolescents are experiencing difficulties in balancing their identity and the identity of their environment. Peer relationships and the school environment in particular play a significant effect. Teenagers who live in unfavorable environments will also exhibit undesirable behaviors. According to earlier research, these environments are common places for theft, vandalism, sexual harassment, verbal abuse, and non-physical contact hostility, and a sizable percentage of teachers have been victims for several years.¹⁹ Lower levels of school connection, decreased job satisfaction, and even contemplation of quitting teaching might result from victimization.¹⁹ Furthermore, a meta-analysis of 24 studies from different countries revealed that the prevalence of teacher-reported violence ranged from 20% to 75% over two years, demonstrating that this phenomenon is not exclusive to any one culture or nation.¹⁹ Given the prevalence of student aggression towards teachers, middle and high school teachers often face significant challenges in managing student behavior and maintaining their well-being and job satisfaction. In recent years, several studies have explored the impact of TWB on various aspects of middle and high school, namely health, effectiveness, instructional quality,²³ and teaching efficiency.²⁴ TWB has also been reported to be negatively associated with students’ school grades, school satisfaction achievement test scores, and perceived teachers support at the classroom level.^25,26 Despite the availability of literature, there are limited reports on the factors causing teachers well-being in middle and high school. This shows that it is essential to discern and address the limitations encountered in previous studies TWB while also formulating a roadmap for future investigations. Therefore, this review aims to provide an overview of the current literature on determinants of TWB in middle and high school and to identify potential areas for the future investigation based on systematic review.

Patients and Methods

The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) checklist and guidelines served as the basis for this evaluation.^27,28 Based on the total number of references initially identified to the papers that were included and excluded, the PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1) illustrated the many stages of this systematic review.

Figure 1 PRISMA flow diagram of Systematic Review. This figure is original, created for this study and has never been published before. Abbreviation: TWB, teacher well-being.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Inclusion criteria comprised studies published (1) in peer-reviewed journals, (2) use English language, (3) between 2013 and 2023, and (4) open access. Meanwhile, articles were excluded from consideration when the topic used was related to TWB but was not limited to middle school or high school level, or when the discussion did not specifically pertain to TWB.

Databases and Search Strategy

A search was conducted between February and May 2023 to obtain the relevant literature on various databases, including Scopus, Science Direct, Springer Link, and EBSCO host. In addition, the databases selected enabled both a discipline-specific (Scopus) and a general (Science Direct; Springer Link; EBSCO) search. The search for studies published between 2013 and 2023 was limited, and peer-reviewed articles were carefully selected. Moreover, search strings consisted of a combination of, “factor” or “determinant”, “Teacher well-being” or “well-being”, or, “workplace well-being in school”, “middle school teacher”, or, “adolescence teacher”, or, “junior school teacher” or, “high school teacher”. The search terms were thoroughly discussed to ensure that relevant empirical articles were identified. The terms in titles and keywords were identified, yielding a first total of 465 hits.

All articles were identified through a search on multiple databases using synonyms, followed by removal of duplicates. The reviewer independently conducts screening based on titles and abstracts that are potentially relevant according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria described before. Subsequently, the reviewer performs full text screened. Full text articles that have met inclusion criteria are extracted into Microsoft word list by the primary author (FLI) and validated by three authors (HA, FDP, FYL). The eligibility of 12 studies was then assessed through a full-text analysis, leading to the exclusion of articles that did not focus on TWB in middle and high school. Descriptive data extracted into Microsoft Word list include titles, authors, years, methods, determinants of TWB, and future area.

Two co-authors independently retrieved pertinent data from papers that matched our inclusion criteria. We compared the derived results and resolved any inconsistencies through team discussions before integrating the data. Because the included studies had various participant characteristics, methodologies, outcomes, and future topics, we were unable to conduct a meta-analysis of their findings. We summarized the narrative factors of each study, as well as prospective topics of TWB. The researchers used the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) version 2018 to assess the risk of bias for articles that met the inclusion and exclusion criteria. MMAT is a critical appraisal instrument used during the appraisal step of systematic mixed studies reviews, which might comprise qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method research. It allows researchers to assess the methodological quality of five types of studies: qualitative research, randomized controlled trials, non-randomized studies, quantitative descriptive studies, and mixed techniques studies. There was one reviewer who assesses each study and works independently by reading the MMAT guidelines carefully. However, if doubts were found, they were discussed with other reviewers.

Results

The literature search obtained 30 articles in Scopus, 143 in Science Direct, 250 in Springer Link, and 42 in EBSCO Host. After excluding duplicates, screening titles, and abstracts, 33 studies were carefully selected for full-text evaluation. Finally, 12 studies were included in the systematic review (see Figure 1).

Based on MMAT for assessment, there were 12 articles with 1 article using mixed methods (quantitative and qualitative), 8 articles with quantitative non-randomized control trial, 1 article with randomized control trial, and 2 articles with quantitative descriptive studies Table 1–4. The scales used to measure teacher well-being vary, namely PERMA Questionnaire, Ryff Psychological Well-being Scale, Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS), Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS), Flourishing Scale, and Occupational Well-being. There are several articles that use the same measurement scale. Then, there are several confounders accounted for in the design and analysis, namely: gender, age, marital status, teaching experience, socioeconomic status, number of children, school level, personality, school size, school location, school type, and proportion of students and teachers. Participants in these articles were middle or high school teachers, and some articles had a mix of other professions. The participating came from different countries: Italy, Hungary, England and Wales, Zambia, Malaysia, India, USA, Norway, Lithuania, Australia, Germany.

Table 1 Quality Appraisal of Mixed Methods Studies

Table 2 Quality Appraisal of Quantitative Studies (Non-Randomized: Case-Control Studies)

Table 3 Quality Appraisal of Quantitative Descriptive Studies

Table 4 Quality Appraisal of Quantitative Studies (Randomized Controlled Trials)

Table 5 Determinant of TWB in Middle and High School Teacher

Table 6 Determinants of Teacher Well-Being (TWB) Among Middle and High School Teachers Can Be Categorized Into the Following Domains

Based on the findings presented in Table 5, four domains of determinants of TWB among middle and high school teachers were identified. An overview of these factors and their relationship with TWB is presented in Table 6. Physical health: The foundation of TWB lay in maintaining good physical health. This aspect comprised ensuring sufficient sleep, adopting relaxation techniques, and engaging in regular physical activity.³⁵ Mental and emotional health: An integral aspect that influenced TWB was mental and emotional well-being. Numerous factors were identified as impacting TWB either positively or negatively. These factors included job stressors, job insecurity,³¹ psychological capital (such as hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism),²⁹ teachers’ personality traits (such as extraversion, neuroticism, and conscientiousness),³⁴ psychopathy, economic distress,³¹ personal growth, purpose in life, self-acceptance,³³ teachers victimization,¹⁹ and mindfulness.³⁵ Social support: Adequate social support was crucial for teachers as it significantly influenced TWB. This support could manifest in various forms, including support from colleagues, principals/senior leaders, and family. In addition, establishing meaningful connections with students’ colleagues,³⁶ fostering positive teacher–student relationships, and nurturing overall positive relationships within the educational context contributed to TWB.³⁷ Professional development and autonomy: The level of professional development and autonomy experienced by teachers was another determinant impacting TWB. Factors, such as autonomy,³³ job resources,³⁷ competence,³⁶ job demands, job control,³² cognitive training, work on automatic thought processes,³⁵ workload, and performance management were all influential in this context.⁴¹

In summary, the findings presented showed the multidimensional nature of TWB among middle and high school teachers. The identified determinants included aspects connected to physical health, mental and emotional well-being, social support, and professional development with autonomy. Understanding and addressing these determinants were crucial for promoting TWB and fostering a positive and supportive educational environment.

Table 7 showed future potential areas of investigation on TWB, which could focus on intervention programs, developing influential social and cultural factors, and developing methodologies and measurements about TWB.

Table 7 Future Area Potential Research of TWB

Discussion

This study aims to provide a comprehensive review of the existing literature on the determinants of teacher well-being (TWB) among middle and high school teachers while also identifying potential areas for future research through a systematic review. The findings reveal four key domains influencing TWB: physical health, mental and emotional health, social support, and professional development with autonomy.

Future studies must emphasize TWB intervention programs, cultural and social factors influencing their well-being, methodology, and measurement of TWB. The findings of the four determinants domains of TWB were in line with the results of previous reports.³⁵ Stone et al stated that reducing physical and psychological strain and increasing self-care could improve TWB and increase health motivation, and physical activity over time was also beneficial.⁴⁰ General health and vitality showed predominantly positive correlations with TWB.⁴² Other research says that one aspect of physical health is related to sleep quality. Sleep is an important means of replenishing psychological resources. When sleep is insufficient due to poor sleep quality, work wellbeing suffers as the body is easily fatigued and lacks concentration.⁴³ Thus, sleep quality is related to work wellbeing. In addition, participation in sports activities can also reduce stress and improve teacher well-being.⁴⁴ Adequate diet, sports practice, and adequate sleep reduce stress and improve mental well-being.⁴⁵ Teachers who exercise regularly will have lower levels of fatigue and better work balance. This shows how the physical health domain affects TWB.

In terms of mental and emotional health, various factors contribute to TWB, including the development of psychological capital (hope, optimism, resilience, and self-efficacy) and proactive coping mechanisms through interventions could be a valuable avenue to this variable.⁴⁶ In addition, well-being was influenced by hope,⁴⁷ self-efficacy,⁴⁸ optimism, and resilience.⁴⁹ These findings suggested that the Psychology Capital also contributed to well-being. Additionally, mindfulness among teachers has been associated with reduced job stress, occupational burnout, depressive symptoms, and anxiety, thereby enhancing TWB.⁴⁵ Mindfulness not only improves well-being but also mitigates depression among educators. These factors should be incorporated into interventions aimed at improving teacher’s well-being.

Victimization both verbally and physically by students to teachers also affected their well-being.¹⁹ Based on the review of various articles assessing TWB in middle and senior high school, a difference emerged, namely the existence of determinants regarding victimization at this level, which was not found in other grades. Aggression against teachers had negative impacts on victimized emotional and physical well‐being as well as job performance.¹⁹

The third domain, social support, plays a critical role in TWB. This includes teacher–student relationships, which are often perceived as more supportive than relationships with fathers, siblings, or other family members, though still less influential than maternal relationships.⁵⁰ Misbehavior students have been directly linked to increased teacher burnout and reduced enthusiasm, further affecting TWB within this domain.³⁷

The domain of professional development and autonomy strongly influenced TWB. Kaur et al stated that improving and managing well-being was not just a task for teachers but a shared responsibility where all education stakeholders worked together to make it an important issue in all stages of preparation and professional development.⁵¹ The well-being of teachers who had autonomy,³³ job resources, competence, and workload⁵² was often affected. In addition, there were some similarities between TWB determination in middle and senior high school and other grades. This showed that further investigation was needed to explore preschool TWB, self-efficacy, life satisfaction, financial stability, emotional and physical health, and autonomy.⁵³ Several studies have also reported the association of Big 5 personality traits with TWB through the impact of optimism but not pessimism.⁵⁴

A comparison with the TWB predictors identified by Hascher and Waber,¹⁰ using their self-regulated learning (SRL) approach, reveals differences in domain classification. While their study identified two domain-objective variables (eg, gender, age, school size) and subjective variables (eg, personality traits, virtues, job satisfaction, collegial support) – this study highlights four determinants of TWB, as described above. These findings have the potential to complement and expand upon prior research in the field.

This review covered several potential areas of future investigation of TWB, including intervention programs, cultural and social factors that influenced the variable, and study methodology and measurement. TWB was a crucial aspect of education; hence, intervention programs were constantly being developed. Previous studies had implemented several interventions, such as the PERMA model,¹ mindfulness training, and self-help techniques to reduce teachers’ stress,⁵⁵ and emphasize the importance of goal setting to achieve work–life balance.⁵⁶ The organization-level intervention, the Work Life Support Well-being Programmed, was implemented in the UK⁵⁶ with confidence.

Previous reports showed that social and cultural factors had a significant impact on individuals’ well-being^57,58 also showed the importance of the cultural environment in shaping well-being. In addition,⁵⁹ studies identified 9 dimensions that formed the Indonesian cultural version of psychological well-being, namely standard of living, lifestyle, a sense of security, social connectedness, life achievement, mental and physical health, religiosity, spirituality, and ethics. The standard of living dimension served as the foundation for other dimensions. Every culture had its local wisdom, and when the standard of living was not met, individuals had a mechanism of self-defense that involved being submissive, patient, and grateful.

Based on the several definitions of TWB, its methodology and measurement were likely to vary. However, it was commonly referred to as a future area of study for TWB and is generally measured using the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) and Positive and Negative Scale (PANAS). Meanwhile,⁶⁰ Ryff measured psychological well-being using PERMA well-being combined with PANAS⁶¹ to assess TWB. In the context of employment in Western countries, the concept of human flourishing⁶² was commonly used when discussing well-being. The most contextual instrument for this measurement was the teachers’ well-being scale (TWBS), developed by Collie, et al.⁵²

Based on the results of the MMAT evaluation, we can compare the findings of Hascher and Waber who examined the systematic review of TWB from 2000 to 2019. The article found that there are several things that are predictors of TWB in terms of objective variables, namely: gender, age, marital status, religion, ethnic background, personal social status, years of teaching, school level, employment status, teacher educational level, position rank in school, teacher education, classroom teacher, salary, mentoring role, school size, school status, socioeconomic status, curriculum, home-based teaching, political situation, and teaching in conflict settings.¹⁰ The MMAT findings in this study, which examined systematic review TWB from 2013 to 2023, added several predictors of TWB that were not mentioned in Hascher and Weber’s study, namely number of children, school location, school type, and proportion of students and teachers.

The subjective variables found in this study were related to physical health (sleep quality, relaxation adaptation, general health, vitality health and physical activity); mental, emotional, and social health including job stressors, job insecurity, psychological capital (such as hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism) teachers’ personality traits (such as extraversion, neuroticism, and conscientiousness), psychopathy, economic distress, personal growth, purpose in life, self-acceptance, teachers victimization, aggression, mindfulness, and support from colleagues, principals/senior leaders, and family, establishing meaningful connections with students’ colleagues, fostering positive teacher–student relationships, and nurturing overall positive relationships within the educational context contributed to TWB; professional development and autonomy include job resources, competence, job demands, job control, cognitive training, work on automatic thought processes, workload, and performance management. Meanwhile, when viewed from Hascher and Weber’s research, there are several subjective predictors of TWB, namely: arrogance, diverse virtues and character strengths, emotion regulation, experience of burden (stress, sickness, depression, burn out, exhaustion, and fatigue), jobs satisfaction, commitment, motivation, positive and negative affect, role conflict, threat appraisal, school ethos, school climate, positive relationship with parents, student well-being. Therefore, the findings from these two articles can complement each other to assess the longitudinal trajectories of wellbeing in middle school teachers.¹⁰

Limitations

There are several limitations to the current systematic review that need to be considered and incorporated into future research. First, there may be bias because this systematic review only included open access, English-language studies, which may have excluded important studies published in other languages with less availability. Second, 54% of the well-being studies reviewed were conducted in European countries, while only 18% were conducted in Asian countries, with smaller percentages in other countries. The author cautions that the results are strongly influenced by the culture in Europe and less representative of countries with Asian or other cultures. Third, theories of teacher well-being still come from a variety of foundational theories, some have taken a positive psychology perspective, but there are still many that focus on the negative perspective of well-being. The author recommends literature review research that focuses more on teacher well-being from a positive psychology perspective only.

Conclusion and Implication

In conclusion, the results showed that there were four determinants of middle and senior high-school TWB, including physical health, mental and emotional health, social support, and professional development and autonomy. This review also showed areas that required further investigation, such as TWB intervention programs, cultural and social factors influencing TWB, study methodology, and measurement of TWB.

The results of this review have several implications for teacher well-being. First, there is a need to develop and implement intervention programs to improve teacher well-being, which should be tailored to the local cultural and social context of schools and countries. Second, teachers’ physical health, including sleep quality and physical fitness, and mental health should be considered. Third, good social support from colleagues, students, and principals should be continuously improved. Fourth, autonomy in teaching and opportunities for professional development are needed to develop teachers’ well-being.